About Watch Russia
Surprisingly, the largest Renaissance fortress, the Kremlin, can be found in Moscow. The theological concept of “Moscow – the Third Rome“, formulated by the monk Philotheus and a political paradigm for Muscovy, finds its almost literal embodiment in the capital’s appearance thanks to Russian-Italian architectural dialogue, which began in the 15th century and continues to this day.
The builder of the Moscow Kremlin and, to a considerable extent, of the Russian state itself was Ivan III, who ascended to the throne in 1462. He was a man of reason and caution, steadfastly pursuing his chosen goal while adeptly taking advantage of circumstances. In 1472, he married Zoya Sophia Palaiologina, niece of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos. This marriage helped establish diplomatic relations between Muscovy and Rome, as well as other Western countries. The marriage to a Greek princess provided grounds for transferring the hereditary rights of the Palaiologos dynasty to the Moscow Grand Duchy. Soon after, Moscow proclaimed itself as the Third Rome and adopted the double-headed eagle, the heraldic emblem of the Byzantine Empire, as its coat of arms.
At that time, the Third Rome was predominantly made of wood, which needed to be dressed in stone, with palaces, chambers, and temples worthy of imperial grandeur being built within it. The vaults of the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, founded in the Kremlin in 1472, collapsed two years later. Chronicles list several reasons for this: miscalculations, weakened walls unable to bear heavy loads, poor-quality lime mortar used in masonry, and even an earthquake (earth trembling). It was decided to bring in new specialists. Following the advice of Tsaritsa Sophia Palaiologina, raised in Italy where the Renaissance had begun, they chose Italian experts, who were considered the best in Europe. Envoy Semyon Tolbuzin was tasked with finding an Italian stonemason – muratore. In his report, Tolbuzin explained his choice: “I picked Aristotle from among many masters… A master stonemason who built churches and halls… equally skilled in casting cannons, bells, and various items.”
Ridolfo Fiorentino degli Alberti, nicknamed “Aristotle” for his ingenuity, was already far from young, nearing sixty. Yet he possessed extensive experience as an engineer, hydraulics expert, and military strategist. He had straightened leaning towers, repaired bridges, relocated bell towers, and had gained broad practice in major northern Italian cities. After strengthening southern Hungary’s defences, he journeyed to Muscovy. On Easter Sunday 26 March 1475, the stonemason arrived in Moscow. Chronicles mention a promised monthly salary for the Italian master serving the Muscovite prince: 22 gold florins or ten roubles, a substantial sum back then. The fryazin, a term Russians used for foreigners from Western Europe, especially Italians, was assigned reconstruction of the collapsing structure. At home, Fiorentino was renowned as the leading specialist in such matters. Initially, hopes were high that the damaged cathedral could be fixed rather than rebuilt entirely. But no, Fiorentino delivered another verdict.
After clearing away the debris, the Italian travelled to Vladimir to study Russian construction traditions. His model for the Moscow cathedral would be the main shrine, the Cathedral of Vladimir. Upon seeing this stone façade, Fiorentino recognized the handwork of Roman sculptors sent by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. The architect discovered suitable clay near the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow for producing reliable brick material. Using a compass, ruler and drafting tools, he drafted plans for the future five-domed Moscow cathedral. Six circular columns supported cross-vaults and arches without obstructing the interior space.
The features uniting the Assumption Cathedral with late mediaeval Italian churches include strict, simple forms, precise geometry based on exact square grids, large dimensions, and spacious interiors flooded with light. Such vast halls with excellent acoustics were unknown in Russia prior to Fiorentino’s work. The cathedral on Sobornaya Square in the Kremlin was consecrated by Metropolitan Gerontius on 12 August 1479, in honor of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Pietro Antonio Solari belonged to a family of builders that essentially shaped Milan’s architectural language during the third quarter of the 15th century. Taking valuable experience from Lombardy, Solari set off for Moscow in 1490, together with apprentice Sanantonio, foundryman Giacomo, and silversmith Cristoforo. Here, known in chronicles as Pietro Antonio Fryazin, Solari became the chief architect (architectus generalis Moscovie) until his death in 1493.
During this period, the Italian carried out crucial works to strengthen the citadel’s fortifications. He designed key Kremlin towers with gates, Borovitskaya, Konstantino-Eleninskaya, Spasskaya, Nikolskaya, and multilateral Arsenal Tower. Elements of Milan’s Sforzesco Castle wall topped with battlements, also constructed by Italian craftsmen, were referenced in the completion of the Kremlin wall.
Solari worked together with Marko Fryazin, descendant of a Lombard stonecutter invited to Moscow by Ivan III, in constructing the Faceted Chamber, which was the principal ceremonial hall of the Russian grand dukes and tsars and venue for national assemblies. Its white-stoned octagonal blocks and diamond-shaped rustication inspired the Venetian style called diamanti. Possible inspirations for the authors included the Palazzo dei Diamanti and the Palazzo Mocenigo in Venice.
Alonso Lamberti da Montagnana, known as Aloisio Novyi, arrived in Moscow in 1494. To decorate the façades of the Archangel Cathedral in the Kremlin, he borrowed famous white marble shells from Venetian architecture. The craftsmanship featured elements of Italian Renaissance architecture: frame pilasters with plant capitals, multi-profile cornices, volutes, acanthus leaves, and acroterions. The six-columned, five-domed cathedral dedicated to St. Michael the Archangel served as the burial place for Russian monarchs. Construction began toward the end of the life of Ivan III, the Russian sovereign whose reign facilitated the encounter between mediaeval Russian culture and the artistic world of Renaissance Italy. Seeking to transform Moscow into something resembling Byzantium, Ivan established an entire Italian “office” in the city, and this played an invaluable role in domestic architecture development.
Italian architects undoubtedly filled the shortage in professional personnel responsible for building fortresses and palatial structures. Yet, paradoxically, foreigners belonging to different faiths continued to be entrusted with Orthodox church constructions. One example is the first tent-like church in Russia, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, created using the creativity of Renaissance architects. Scholars attribute authorship to Pietro Francesco Annibale, known in Moscow as Petrok Maly Fryazin. Owing to his small stature, he earned this nickname when he arrived at Vasily III’s court in 1528, possibly recommended by Pope Clement VII. Without doubt, Petrok Maly was familiar with Leon Battista Alberti’s treatise On the Art of Building.
When Vasily III’s long-awaited heir, a boy destined to become Ivan the Terrible, was born in 1530 in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, legend has it that the joyful father ordered a stone church erected here. By then, Kolomenskoye had been transformed into a princely residence. Consecrated in 1532, the cathedral was visible from afar, standing prominently atop a hill overlooking the Moscow River.
At ground level lies a unified column supporting four chapels with galleries. Above this stands an octagon. Over the octagon rises a pyramidal spire, soaring towards heaven. With no altar apse (historians note similarities to Pisa’s Chapel of St. Agatha), the tented cathedral resembled more a defensive tower than a house of worship. For centuries, many have marvelled at the beauty and elegance of the Church of the Ascension. When visiting Kolomenskoye, French composer Hector Berlioz exclaimed: “Much have I seen, much have I admired, but time, ancient time in Russia, left behind a monument, a wonder of wonders, in this village. I’ve seen the Strasbourg Cathedral, which took centuries to build; I’ve stood close to the Milan Cathedral, yet beyond superficial decoration, nothing else struck me. Here, before my eyes, lay perfect harmony, complete beauty. Everything within me quivered. It was mysterious silence. Harmony of completed forms. I saw a novel type of architecture. I felt an upward aspiration, as I stood awestruck for a long time”.
Regarding the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Moat (St. Basil’s Cathedral), debates persist concerning its origins. There is a widely accepted version attributing it to Old Russian architects Postnik Yakovlev and Ivan Barma, known only from one unchronicled source. Neither composition nor decoration fit in with the evolution of Russian architecture. The flat, coffered vault above the western porch clearly represented a Renaissance covering technique. The volumetric spatial structure of the Cathedral of the Intercession, with multiple segments like Bramante’s ideal central space, lacked analogues in Russia. For centuries, it amazed viewers, prompting speculation that the designers, likely Italians, were acquainted with Filarete’s treatise describing the ideal city of Sforzinda.
The influx of Italians into Russia continued, intensifying particularly under Peter the Great. Naturally, architects primarily worked in the new capital, St. Petersburg. Nevertheless, the old capital, Moscow, remained significant.
Giovanni Maria Fontana, also known as Francesco Fontana, descended from stonemasons in Ticino, arrived in Russia in 1703. Based in the German Quarter, he engaged in reconstruction projects, notably expanding Alexander Menshikov’s Lefortovo Palace. Applying Palladian principles, Fontana enlarged the building, added twin two-storey wings, and converted the courtyard into a closed quadrangle, thus preserving to this day the palace currently housing the Russian State Military Archive.
An ardent admirer of Andrea Palladio and his treatise Four Books on Architecture was Giacomo Antonio Domenico Quarenghi, hailing from the Bergamo region. As a brilliant draughtsman and veduta artist, he devoted himself to architecture. In 1789, Quarenghi came to Russia accompanied by fellow Italian master Giacomo Trombara. Adhering to classical forms, symmetry, proportionality, restraint, clarity, and harmonious design, Quarenghi designed some of his most notable Moscow buildings: the Gostiny Dvor (The Merchant Court) and Sheremetev Hospital (now The Sklifosovsky Institute for Emergency Medicine). He surrounded the entire Kitay-Gorod district with a colossal Corinthian colonnaded gallery accommodating two-storey shops and forming an oval inner courtyard. For the hospital project originally conceived by architect Elivo Nazarov, Quarenghi introduced representative and monumental notes by adding a semi-circular colonnade facing inward.
In 1796, Domenico Gilardi departed from the mountainous village of Montagnola in Ticino canton, following his father and uncle to Russia, where he became Demetrius Ivanovich. During his illustrious career, Gilardi contributed significantly to embellishing Moscow, restoring fire-damaged buildings (including the university on Mokhovaya Street) and designing new ones (such as the Usachev-Naydenov Estate on Zemlyanoy Val, and the Lunin`s House on Nikitsky Boulevard, now the Museum of Oriental Art). Perhaps Gilardi’s finest and most poetic creation was the Music Pavilion at the Golitsyn Kuzminki Estate. The pavilion’s centerpiece was a large niche-exedra framed by a four-column Tuscan portico. Above rose an architrave decorated with triglyphs and metopes, a slightly jutting out cornice, low attic and a sculpture depicting Apollo playing a lyre amid dancing muses. The rusticated façade contrasted sharply with the smooth white walls bearing medallions featuring musical cupids. This Empire-style pavilion was Gilardi’s farewell to the city, which he would leave in 1832 after more than twenty years. Only fourteen years later, the cast iron statues Horse Tamers by Peter Clodt appeared on the pavilion staircase.
Sculptor Peter Clodt was also responsible for the quadrigon driven by a radiant Apollo crowning the portico of the Bolshoi Theatre, designed by Alberto Cavos. Needless to say, architect Cavos had Italian roots too.
Among Moscow’s buildings created by architects enchanted by Italian classicism, those by Ivan Zholtovsky exemplify the most faithful adherence to Renaissance ideals irrespective of fashion trends or political regimes. Having visited Italy 26 times from 1903 onwards, the young architect captured all impressions in watercolours, sketches, and measurements. His keen memory retained solutions for joints, details, fragments, and ornamentation.
Zholtovsky’s first independent work, the Racetrack Society House (1906) on Skakovaya Alley, brought him fame. Everyone praised the unexpectedly fresh solution combining Moscow Classicism and Palladianism. The club’s formal façade featured a broken pediment portal, Corinthian columns, and a side semicircle balcony on Ionic columns. Three floors were decorated with plaster friezes showing antique motifs and racing horsemen. Interior designs followed early Neoclassic accents, courtesy of scenographer, painter and illustrator Ignatius Nivinsky. The vaulted ceilings of the vestibule and Imperial Hall were painted with frescoes portraying antique and mediaeval themes. Inside the Racetrack Society House, Nivinsky echoed paintings executed by Andrea Mantegna in the Palazzo Ducale in Mantua.
Soviet critic Selim Khan-Magomedov called Zholtovsky’s Tarasov Residence (built 1909–1912) “One of Zholtovsky’s most enigmatic creations, perhaps of 20th-century architecture altogether.” Modern contemporaries labelled the building on Spiridonovka Street “Tales of Times Past”. Predictably, critics accused Zholtovsky of plagiarism. It was no secret that, for his Moscow project, the architect borrowed structural and façade patterns from Vicenza’s Palazzo Thiene. Built in 1550–1551 by Andrea Palladio, beloved by Zholtovsky, the palace lacked entrance doors. Its rigid symmetrical Palladian façade was nearly literally transferred onto Moscow streets. If anything had been changed, Zholtovsky increased the height of the lower floor by 1/13 more than the lighter second storey. The house consisted of several volumes enclosing an internal Italian courtyard with a fountain. Between the floors read the Latin inscription: Gabrielus Tarassof Fecit Anno Domini. Interior furnishings matched the external splendour: ceilings and panels covered with frescoes. Painters Eugene Lansere, Ignatius Nivinsky and Vincent Trophimov rendered imitations of Renaissance artworks, copies of Titian, Tintoretto and Guilio Romano.
Only a few years passed before Zholtovsky once again quoted the same Renaissance prototype, creating an apartment block for the Moscow Architectural Society adjacent to Spiridonovka Street in Yermolayevsky Lane.
Under Soviet rule, Ivan Zholtovsky presented his programme work directly opposite the Kremlin, on Mokhovaya Street. In 1932, he built a residential complex for employees of the Moscow City Council. “I’m presenting classics on Mokhovaya,” Zholtovsky worried, “and if I fail, I’ll discredit classical principles.” The regular seven-floor grid façade was combined with a composite order taken from prototypes. This time, inspiration derived from another creation by Andrea Palladio, Loggia del Capitaniato (Loggia Bernarda) in Vicenza.
Creative reinterpretations of Italian images manifested themselves not just in urban spaces but underground as well. Dmitry Chechulin, a postgraduate student at the USSR Academy of Architecture, visited Italy in 1935. As part of the thirteenth International Congress of Architects, a Mediterranean tour explored Pompeii, Venice and Florence. These experiences influenced Chechulin’s subsequent design for Kiyevskaya Metro Station on the Filyovskaya Line in 1937. Forty-six columns were clad in pink and pale green onyx. Capitals made of glazed porcelain bore wheat ears and fruits in relief. Techniques studied in Florence shaped this design. Wall decorations inside the station fore-hall mimicked Pompeiian paintings.
Architect Aleksandr Vlasov experienced similar trips across Italy in 1935. Writing enthusiastically from Venice to his wife: “We live in a tiny hotel in an old-old house on St. Mark’s Square, next to the cathedral. Out of the window stretches the whole piazza, the Palazzo Ducale, the Procuratie, and the sea. No architectural ensemble could match this vision: buildings of white, yellow, and pink marble streaked black over time. The cathedral astonishes with delicate details, mosaic paintings. Stone slabs form pathways winding through courtyards. Now, evening falls, giving the impression of walking through a giant room beneath the sky.” Traces of Italian influence are evident in Vlasov’s Moscow projects. Take, for instance, the Luzhniki Stadium reminiscent of an ancient amphitheatre. The Central Union of Trades Unions building on Leninsky Prospect faintly recalled resort town structures. Vlasov incorporated terracotta-white colour combinations inspired by Pompeiian frescoes in balconies. Open loggias echo forms characteristic of Italian baroque.
The structure Eugene Stamo designed in 1950 deep within the Park of the Physical Problems Institute was reminiscent of a modest suburban Renaissance palace. Originally intended for scientist Artem Alikhanian`s laboratory, it eventually went to Academician Pyotr Kapitsa, who lived there till his final days. Today, located on Kosygina Street, it houses a memorial museum honouring Nobel laureate Kapitsa.
Currently practising Moscow architects include devotees of Renaissance architecture, Palladian style, and, indeed, Italy. Foremost among them is Mikhail Filippov, creator of the Roman House on Vtoroy Kazachy Lane, the Italian Quarter on Fadeyeva Street, the Marshal Complex on Marshal Rybalko Street, and buildings where elements borrowed from Classical and Renaissance architecture, arches, entablatures, columns, rustication, compose intricate narratives evoking memories of Rome. Or of Moscow as the Third Rome, capable of miraculously blending styles, epochs, and even other cities, transforming them into truly authentic Moscow creations.
